B R O W N I E

.

Ingredientes

150 g de manteiga com sal 450 g de chocolate meio-amargo hidrogenado-

6 ovos-

450 g de açúcar-

12 colheres (sopa) de farinha de trigo-

1 colher (sobremesa) de essência de baunilha-

170 g de chocolate meio-amargo cortado em cubinhos

Para a calda de chocolate:-

1 litro de leite-

½ kg de achocolatado

Modo de preparo

Em banho-maria, derreta a manteiga com sal e o chocolate meio-amargo hidrogenado. Numa batedeira, na velocidade dois, bata os ovos por cerca de 10 min até ficarem brancos e dobrarem de volume. Adicione o açúcar e a farinha de trigo. Bata por mais 2 min. Junte o chocolate com a margarina (derretidos) e a essência de baunilha. Numa forma nº 6 (39 cm x 28 cm), untada com margarina e polvilhada com farinha de trigo, despeje a massa. Deixe a massa descansar por 10 min na forma. Depois, salpique por cima da massa o chocolate meio-amargo cortado em cubinhos. Leve ao forno pré-aquecido em temperatura média por cerca de 30 min (até a preparação ficar resistente sobre a pressão do dedo). Retire do forno, deixe esfriar e corte os brownies do tamanho que desejar. Sirva quente (no microondas, deixe 40 seg na potência média ou aqueça no forno).

Como acompanhamento, uma bola de sorvete de creme, calda de chocolate e chantilly para decorar.

Para a calda de chocolate:

Numa panela em fogo médio, coloque o leite e o achocolatado. Misture bem e deixe ferver. Abaixe o fogo e deixe engrossar por 30 min. Rendimento: 12 porções

LEARNING IN THE NEWS XX - (For Beginners Level of Business English Students and Up)

At the Zenith of Solar Energy
Published on Business Week – by Neal Sandler
March 26, 2008, 1:20PM EST

.

Israeli energy startup Zenith Solar is pioneering a "concentrated solar power" method that is up to 1,000 times more efficient than standard technology

.

Rooftops all over Israel look strikingly similar: More than 1 million households in the nation of 7.1 million people have solar panels that produce hot water—a relatively simple technology that gained popularity after the 1973 Arab-Israeli war, when oil prices shot up sharply. As of the early 1990s, all new residential buildings were required by the government to install solar water-heating systems.
Yet despite Israel's sunny climate and early lead in solar heating, it has been slow in adopting more sophisticated solar technologies that produce electricity from sunlight. Now, with oil hovering near $100 a barrel, a local startup hopes to build on the country's early embrace of sun power to carve out a new clean-energy business.
Zenith Solar, based in Nes Ziona near Tel Aviv, is a pioneer in a new type of solar energy that uses mirrors and lenses to focus and intensify the sun's light, producing far more electricity at lower cost. Compared with traditional flat photovoltaic panels made of silicon, this so-called "concentrated solar power" technology has proved in tests to be up to 1,000 times more efficient. That puts it on the verge of being competitive with oil and natural gas, even without government subsidies.

.
A Boost to Israel's Energy Supply

"Our goal is to utilize every suitable roof, backyard, and open space in Israel to turn households, hotels, and factories into net producers of electricity and thermal heat," says Roy Segev, the founder and chief executive of Zenith Solar. Founded in 2006, the startup has raised $5 million from a handful of private investors in Israel and the U.S. Now it's trying to raise an additional $10 million to $15 million to cover the cost of commercializing its technology.
The opportunity is compelling. Israel's National Infrastructure Ministry estimates solar panels for water-heating already satisfy 4% of the country's total energy demand. With technology like Zenith Solar's widely installed, the figure could jump to more than 16%—a big boost for a country now almost totally dependent on imported energy.
Zenith bought the rights to the solar technology from Ben-Gurion University and Germany's Fraunhofer Institute. A joint Israeli-German research team from the two organizations designed a working prototype, which consists of a 10-sq.-meter (107.6-sq.-ft.) dish lined with curved mirrors made from composite materials. The mirrors focus the sun's radiation onto a 100-sq.-centimeter (15.5-sq.-in.) "generator" that converts light to electricity. The generator also gives off intense heat, which is captured via a water-cooling system for residential or industry hot-water uses.

.
Avoiding Costly Panels

.
One of the biggest advantages of Zenith Solar's approach, especially in today's market, is its limited use of polysilicon. Skyrocketing global demand for traditional photovoltaic panels has led to a worldwide shortage of the material and lifted prices tenfold in the past four years.
"Photovoltaic material accounts for 80% of the cost of standard systems," says David Faiman, chief scientific officer at Zenith, and a 30-year solar-energy veteran who was part of the development team. "Our technology succeeds in reducing this to less than 10%, while at the same time obtaining very high efficiency."
After further refining the technology, Zenith plans in the coming months to take its first major steps toward commercialization. Two large-scale test installations are planned for this summer at a kibbutz and a factory. The company will put 86 of its 7-meter-high dishes on an acre of land at Kibbutz Yavne to provide the community of 250 families with more than a quarter of their energy needs. The second project will replace fuel oil used to produce heat at a large chemical plant in central Israel.

.
Overseas Opportunities

.
Once these projects are operational, Zenith plans to start commercial sales in Israel in 2009 and then to go abroad, says CEO Segev, a 46-year-old entrepreneur who is one of the growing number of Israel's high-tech elite getting involved in renewable energy.
The company is already planning a range of products that would be adapted for household, commercial, and industrial users—and even entire neighborhoods or communities. The price tag for a home-size unit is likely to be less than $20,000.
Zenith sees particularly large market opportunities in the U.S., Spain, Italy, Greece, India, and China. "In California alone, there are 6.9 million private homes that could potentially produce most or all of their own energy," Segev says. To compete abroad, the startup aims to link up with major energy players in other countries.
Until now, the Achilles' heel of solar panels has been the low efficiency of the cells that convert the sun's energy into electricity. Dozens of companies and research labs around the world have toiled to make photovoltaic competitive with other energy technologies, but so far, the best systems have an efficiency level of no more than 10%. As a result, solar panels are heavily subsidized by governments around the world.

.
Making Solar Energy Competitive

.
That's not a viable long-term solution. "Photovoltaic can't continue to exist on subsidies or it will remain a marginal form of energy," says Amit Mor, CEO of Eco-Energy, an Israeli energy consulting firm. Electricity produced by photovoltaics currently costs about 30¢ to 40¢ per kilowatt, he says. That's two to three times the average cost of power made from conventional fuels in the U.S. and Western Europe.
Concentrated solar power offers the hope of changing that equation. "The first generation of our technology should be capable of harnessing about 70% of the solar energy that hits the dish to produce electricity and thermal heat," says Faiman. With that type of efficiency, Zenith Solar says the cost of producing energy with its technology is close to that of conventional fuels.
It's too early to know whether Zenith Solar's technology will catch on the way solar water-heating did in Israel. But with the growing concern for global warming, and oil prices at record highs, the timing of the startup's entry into the market couldn't be better.
.

Vocabulary

.
Rooftops: the outer surface of a roof (telhado)
Strikingly: noticeable - attracting attention or notice through unusual or conspicuous qualities
shot up: (past of shoot up) rose dramatically
sharply: very suddenly and to a great degree
hovering: oscillating
carve out: To separate part of a company’s business, such as a product or division, from the company and turn it into a totally independent firm by selling shares in the new firm. (In this text: formatting)
on the verge: on the limit, on the borders
handful: a small quantity or number
composite: a solid material which is composed of two or more substances having different physical characteristics and in which each substance retains its identity while contributing desirable properties to the whole; especially : a structural material made of plastic within which a fibrous material (as silicon carbide) is embedded
polysilicon: Polycrystalline silicon (or polysilicon, poly-Si, or simply poly in context) is a material consisting of multiple small silicon crystals
Skyrocketing: to rise extremely quickly
Tenfold: by ten times as much
Entrepreneur: someone who organizes a business venture and assumes the risk for it (empreendedor)
Renewable: capable of being renewed; replaceable; "renewable energy such as solar energy is theoretically inexhaustible"
Achilles' heel: a seemingly small but actual mortal weakness
Toiled: (past of toil) same as worked
Harnessing: exploiting, using
thermal : relating to or associated with heat; "thermal movements of molecules"; "thermal capacity"; "thermic energy"; "the caloric effect of sunlight
heat: The noun heat is defined only during the process of energy transfer by conduction or radiation
conventional fuels: (easier explained in Portuguese: combustíveis convencionais)
catch on: become popular
record highs: The highest historical price level reached by a security, commodity or index during trading. The record high is measured from when the instrument first starts trading and updates whenever the last record high is exceeded. The values for record highs are usually nominal, which means they do not account for inflation.
the timing: the moment

SOME HINTS FOR A SUCCESSFUL PRESENTATION

.

From Business Class Book - Longman / Pearson Education

SOME HINTS FOR A SUCCESSFUL PRESENTATION

.
PREPARATION

.
Planning – Plan your presentation carefully. Thorough preparation will make you more confident and help you to overcome your nervousness.

.
Objectives – Think about what you want to achieve. Are you aiming to inform, persuade, train or entertain your audience?

.
Audience - Whom exactly will you be addressing? How many people will be attending? What do they need to know? What do they already know? What will they expect in terms of content and approach?

.
Content – Brainstorm your ideas first. Then decide which are most relevant and appropriate to your audience and to your objectives and carry out any research that is necessary. Be selective! Don’t try to cram too much into your presentation.

.
Approach – A good rule of thumb is to “tell your audience what you’ve going to say, say it then tell the audience what you’ve said”. Try to develop your key point in an interesting and varied way, drawing on relevant examples, figures, etc. for support as appropriate. You might also like to include one or two anecdotes for additional variety and humor.

.
Organization – Think about how you will organize your content. Your presentation should have a clear coherent structure and cover the points you wish to make in a logical order. Most presentations start with a brief introduction and end with a brief conclusion. Use the introduction to welcome your audience, introduce your topic/subject, outline the structure of your talk, and provide guidelines on questions. Use the conclusion to summarize the main points of your presentation, thank the audience for their attention, and invite questions.

.
Visual aids – If you have a lot of complex information to explain, think about using some charts, diagrams, etc., on an overhead projector or flipchart. Visual aids can make a presentation more interesting and easier to understand, but make sure they are appropriate and clear – don’t try to put too much information on each one.

Rehearsal – Allow time to practice your presentation – this will give you a chance to identify any weak points or gaps. You will also be able to check the timing, and make sure you can pronounce any figures and proper names correctly and confidently.

DELIVERY

.
Nerves! – You will probably be nervous at the beginning of your presentation. Don’t worry – most people are nervous in this situation. Try not to speak too fast during the first couple of minutes – this is the time you establish your rapport with the audience and first impressions are very important. You may find it helpful to memorize your introduction.

.
Audience rapport – Try to be enthusiastic – your interest in the subject matter will carry your audience along. Look around your audience as you speak – eye contact is essential for maintaining a good rapport. You will also be able to pick up signals of boredom or disinterest, in which case you can cut your presentation short.

.
Body Language – Stand rather than sit when you are delivering your presentation and try to be aware of any repetitive hand gestures or awkward mannerisms that might irritate your audience.

.
Voice quality – You must be clearly audible at all times – don’t let your voice drop at the end of sentences. If you vary your intonation, your voice will be more interesting to listen to and you will be able to make your points more effectively.

.
Visual aids – Use your visual aids confidently, making sure you allow your audience time to absorb information from flipcharts and transparencies.

.
Audience reaction – Be ready to deal with any hostile questions. Polite, diplomatic answers are a good disarming tactic, but if you should find yourself “under fire”, suggest that the audience keeps any further questions until the end of the presentation and continue with your next point.

.
LANGUAGE

.
Simplicity – Use short words and sentences that you are comfortable with. There is no benefit in using difficult language.

.
Clarity – Active verbs and concrete words are much clearer and easier to understand than passive verbs and abstract concepts. Avoid jargon unless you are sure all your audience will understand it.

.
Signaling – Indicate when you’ve completed one point or section in your presentation and are moving on to the next. Give your audience clear signals as to the direction your presentation is taking.

Understanding the British Government System

Politics of the United Kingdom

Source: Wikipeedia

.
.
The Politics of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland takes place in the framework of a constitutional monarchy in which the Monarch is head of state and the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom is the head of government. Executive power is exercised by the UK government and the devolved government of Scotland and Executives of Wales and Northern Ireland. Legislative power is vested in both the government and the two chambers of Parliament, the House of Commons and the House of Lords, as well as in the Scottish parliament and Welsh and Northern Irish assemblies. The judiciary is independent of the executive and the legislature, though several senior judges are still members of the House of Lords, which is currently the highest court of the UK for civil cases and the highest court of England and Wales for criminal cases. Starting in 2009 however, the judicial role of the House of Lords will be scrapped under the Constitutional Reform Act 2005.
The UK is a pluriform multi-party system and since the 1920s, the two largest political parties have been the Labour Party and the Conservative Party. Though coalition and minority governments have been an occasional feature of Parliamentary politics, the first-past-the-post electoral system used for general elections tends to maintain the dominance of these two parties, though each has in the past century relied upon a third party to deliver a working majority in Parliament.
The Liberal Democrats, a party formed by the merger of the former Liberal Party and Social Democratic Party in 1988, is the third largest party in the British parliament. It seeks a reform of the electoral system to address the dominance of the two-party system.[2]
Growing support for 'Nationalist' parties in Scotland and Wales in the 1970s led to proposals for devolution to both countries but devolution only became a reality in the 1990s. Today, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland each possess a legislature and government alongside that of the United Kingdom, responsible for devolved matters. However, this increased autonomy and devolution of executive and legislative powers has not contributed to a reduction in support for full independence. Indeed, the principal pro-independence party, the Scottish National Party, won 20 extra MSPs at the 2007 Scottish parliament elections and now forms the Scottish Government.
The constitution is uncodified, being made up of constitutional conventions, statutes and other elements.
This system of government, known as the Westminster system, has been adopted by other countries as well, such as Canada, India, Australia, New Zealand, Singapore, Malaysia and Jamaica, countries that made up part of the British Empire.
.
Monarch
.
The head of state, theoretical and nominal source of executive, judicial and legislative power in the UK is the British monarch, currently Queen Elizabeth II. However, sovereignty in the UK no longer rests with the monarch, since the English Bill of Rights in 1689, which established the principle of Parliamentary sovereignty. Nonetheless, the monarch is still known as the sovereign.
The British sovereign possesses many hypothetical powers, including the right to choose any British citizen to be her Prime Minister and the right to call and dissolve Parliament whenever she wishes. However, in accordance with the current uncodified constitution, the Prime Minister is the leader of the largest party in the House of Commons, and Parliament is dissolved at the time suggested by the PM. The monarch retains the ability to deny giving a bill Royal Assent, although in modern times this becomes increasingly more unlikely, as it would cause a constitutional crisis. Queen Anne was the last monarch to exercise this power, which she did on 11 March 1708 with regard to a bill "for the settling of Militia in Scotland". Other royal powers called royal prerogative, such as patronage to appoint ministers and the ability to declare war, are exercised by the Prime Minister and the Cabinet, with the formal consent of the Queen.
Today the sovereign has an essentially ceremonial role restricted in exercise of power by convention and public opinion. However the monarch does continue to exercise three essential rights: the right to be consulted, the right to advise and the right to warn.[3] As a consequence of these ideals, Prime Ministers hold weekly confidential meetings with the monarch in which the sovereign holds the right to express her opinions.
In formal terms, the Crown in Parliament is sovereign even though in practical terms the political head of the UK is the Prime Minister (Gordon Brown since 27 June 2007). However, the real powers of position of the monarch in the British Constitution should not be downplayed. The monarch does indeed retain some power, but it has to be used with discretion. She fulfills the necessary constitutional role as head of state, and with the absence of a distinct separation of powers as in the American model and a strong second chamber, acts as a final check on executive power. If a time came to pass, for instance, when a law threatened the freedom or security of her subjects and citizens, the Queen could decline royal assent, free as she is from the eddies of party politics. Furthermore, armed removal of her by Parliament or Government would be difficult, as the monarch remains commander-in-chief of the armed forces, who swear an oath of allegiance to her.
.
Executive
.
The Government performs the Executive functions of the United Kingdom on behalf of the Sovereign, in whom executive power is theoretically and nominally vested. The monarch appoints a Prime Minister as the head of Her Majesty's Government, guided by the strict convention that the Prime Minister should be the member of the House of Commons most likely to be able to form a Government with the support of the House. In practice, this means that the leader of the political party with an absolute majority of seats in the House of Commons is chosen to be the Prime Minister. The Prime Minister then selects the other Ministers which make up the Government and act as political heads of the various Government Departments. About twenty of the most senior government ministers make up the Cabinet. In total, there are approximately 100 ministers that comprise the government. In accordance with constitutional convention, all ministers within the government are either Members of Parliament or peers in the House of Lords.
As in some other parliamentary systems of government (especially those based upon the Westminster System), the executive (called "the government") is drawn from and is answerable to Parliament - a successful vote of no confidence will force the government either to resign or to seek a parliamentary dissolution and a general election. In practice, members of parliament of all major parties are strictly controlled by whips who try to ensure they vote according to party policy. If the government has a large majority, then they are very unlikely to lose enough votes to be unable to pass legislation.
In November 2005, the Blair government suffered its first defeat, on a proposal to extend the period for detaining terrorist suspects to 90 days. Before this, the last bill proposed by a government that was defeated in the House of Commons was the Shop Hours Bill in 1986, one of only three in the 20th century. Governments with a small majority, or coalition governments are much more vulnerable to defeat. They sometimes have to resort to extreme measures, such as "wheeling in" sick MPs, to get the necessary majority. Margaret Thatcher in 1983 and Tony Blair in 1997 were swept into power with such large majorities that even allowing for dissent within their parties, they were assured of winning practically all parliamentary votes, and thus were able to implement radical programmes of legislative reform and innovation. But other Prime Ministers, such as John Major in 1992, who enjoy only slender majorities can easily lose votes if relatively small numbers of their backbench MPs reject the whip and vote against the Government's proposals. As such, Governments with small majorities find it extremely difficult to implement controversial legislation and tend to become bogged down cutting deals with factions within their party or seeking assistance from other political parties.
.
Government departments
.
The Government of the United Kingdom contains a number of ministries known mainly, though not exclusively as departments, e.g. Ministry of Defence. These are politically led by a Government Minister who is often a Secretary of State and member of the Cabinet. He or she may also be supported by a number of junior Ministers. In practice, several government departments and Ministers have responsibilities that cover England alone, where devolved bodies having responsibility for Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland, (for example - the Department of Health), or responsibilities that mainly focus on England (such as the Department for Children, Schools and Families).
Implementation of the Minister's decisions is carried out by a permanent politically neutral organization known as the civil service. Its constitutional role is to support the Government of the day regardless of which political party is in power. Unlike some other democracies, senior civil servants remain in post upon a change of Government. Administrative management of the Department is led by a head civil servant known in most Departments as a Permanent Secretary. The majority of the civil service staff in fact work in executive agencies, which are separate operational organizations reporting to Departments of State.
"Whitehall" is often used as a synonym for the central core of the Civil Service. This is because most Government Departments have headquarters in and around the former Royal Palace Whitehall.
.
Legislature
.
Parliament is at the centre of the political system in the United Kingdom. It is the supreme legislative body (i.e., there is parliamentary sovereignty), and Government is drawn from and answerable to it. Parliament is bicameral, consisting of the House of Commons and the House of Lords.
.
House of Commons
.
The UK is divided into parliamentary constituencies of broadly equal population (decided by a Boundary Commission for each of the four constituent countries of the United Kingdom), each of which elects a Member of Parliament (MP) to the House of Commons. Of the 646 MPs there is currently only one who does not belong to a political party. In modern times, all Prime Ministers and Leaders of the Opposition have been drawn from the Commons, not the Lords. Alec Douglas-Home resigned from his peerages days after becoming Prime Minister in 1963, and the last Prime Minister before him from the Lords left in 1902 (the Marquess of Salisburi).
One party usually has a majority in Parliament, because of the use of the First Past the Post electoral system, which has been conducive in creating the current two party system. The monarch normally asks a person commissioned to form a government simply whether it can survive in the House of Commons, something which majority governments are expected to be able to do. In exceptional circumstances the monarch asks someone to 'form a government' with a parliamentary minority[4] which in the event of no party having a majority requires the formation of a coalition government. This option is only ever taken at a time of national emergency, such as war-time. It was given in 1916 to Andrew Bonar Law, and when he declined, to David Lloyd George. It is worth noting that a government is not formed by a vote of the House of Commons, merely a commission from the monarch. The House of Commons gets its first chance to indicate confidence in the new government when it votes on the Speech from the Throne (the legislative programme proposed by the new government).
.
House of Lords
.
The House of Lords was previously a hereditary, aristocratic chamber. It is currently mid way through extensive reforms, the most recent of these being enacted in the House of Lords Act 1999. The house currently consists of two parts, the Lords Temporal and Lords Spiritual. Lords Temporal include appointed members (life peers with no hereditary right for their descendants to sit in the house) and the remaining 92 hereditary peers. The Lords Spiritual represent the established Church of England and consists of 26 members, the Archbishops of York and Canterbury and the 24 most senior Bishops of the church. It currently acts to review legislation formed by the House of Commons, with the power to propose amendments, and exercises a suspensive veto. This allows it to delay legislation if it does not approve for twelve months. However, the use of vetoes is limited by convention and the operation of the Parliament Acts: the Lords may not veto the "money bills" or major manifesto promises (see Salisbury convention). Persistent use of the veto can also be overturned by the Parliament Act by the Commons. Often governments will accept changes in legislation in order to avoid both the time delay, and the negative publicity of being seen to clash with the Lords.
The House of Lords is currently also the final court of appeal on civil cases within the United Kingdom, although in practice only a small subset of the House of Lords, known as the Law Lords, hears judicial cases. In accordance with the legal doctrine of stare decisis, the House of Lords supersedes all civil and criminal courts in England & Wales. (The House of Lords has no role in criminal case appeals in Scotland.) The Constitutional Reform Act 2005 outlines plans for a Supreme Court of the United Kingdom to replace the role of the Law Lords.
.
Judiciary
.
The Lord Chancellor (prior to the Constitutional Reform Act 2005) was the head of the judiciary in England and Wales. He appointed judges and magistrates for criminal courts on behalf of the Sovereign. Since 2005, the Lord Chief Justice has assumed the role as head of the judicial branch of government. The Lord Chancellor fell into all the three branches of government, taking roles in the executive, legislature and judiciary, which is a peculiarity amongst many liberal democracies in the world today. However, the Constitutional Reform Act 2005 removes much of the power in this role and gives it to others in the British government, mainly the newly created post of Secretary of State for Constitutional Affairs. Another part of The Lord Chancellor's duties in the House of Lords has been replaced by a dedicated Lord Speaker, who acts as a permanent presiding officer for the House of Lords.
For most types of cases, the court of last resort in the UK is the House of Lords, in practice, only the Law Lords hear cases. For Scottish criminal cases, the High Court of Justiciary sitting as the Court of Criminal Appeal is the court of last resort. The Judicial Committee of the Privy Council is the court of last resort for devolution matters. As is true in the House of Lords, as a rule, only the Law Lords hear cases submitted to the Privy Council. Under the Constitutional Reform Act 2005, judicial functions of the House of Lords and devolution matters assigned to the Privy Council will be transferred to a new Supreme Court of the United Kingdom once a home for the new court is completed.
.
Devolution
.
Though the UK parliament remains the sovereign parliament, Scotland also has its own parliament and Wales and Northern Ireland have assemblies. England, therefore, is the only constituent country of the UK to not have a national assembly or parliament
All three devolved institutions are elected by proportional representation: the Additional Member System is used in Scotland and Wales, and Single Transferable Vote is used in Northern Ireland. The devolved governments have some legislative and other powers, but no legal right to exist. De jure, they can have their powers broadened, narrowed or changed by an Act of the UK Parliament. However, Scotland has a tradition of popular sovereignty as opposed to parliamentary sovereignty and the fact that the Scottish parliament was established following a referendum would make it politically difficult to significantly alter its powers without popular consent.
The UK is therefore a unitary state with a devolved system of government. This contrasts with a federal system, in which sub-parliaments or state parliaments and assemblies have a clearly defined constitutional right to exist and a right to exercise certain constitutionally guaranteed and defined functions and cannot be unilaterally abolished by Acts of the central parliament.
.
England
.
Tendencies to devolution with the wider United Kingdom have had only little resonance in England. There is little appetite for a devolved English parliament, although senior Conservatives and Liberal Democrats have voiced concerns in regard to the West Lothian Question,[5][6] which is raised where certain policies for England are set by MPs from all four constituent nations whereas similar policies for Scotland or Wales might be decided in the devolved assemblies by legislators from those countries alone. Alternative proposals for English regional government have stalled, following a poorly received referendum on devolved government for the North East of England, which had hitherto been considered the region most in favour of the idea, with the exception of Cornwall, where there is widespread support for a Cornish Assembly, including all five Cornish MPs.[7][8] England is therefore governed according to the balance of parties across the whole of the United Kingdom.
The government has no plans to establish an English parliament or assembly although several pressure groups[9] are calling for one. One of their main arguments is that MPs (and thus voters) from different parts of the UK have inconsistent powers. Currently an MP from Scotland can vote on legislation which affects only England but MPs from England (or indeed Scotland) cannot vote on matters devolved to the Scottish parliament. Indeed, the current Prime Minister Gordon Brown, who is an MP for a Scottish constituency, introduces some laws that only affect England and not his own constituency. This anomaly is known as the West Lothian question.
The policy of the UK Government in England was to establish elected regional assemblies with no legislative powers. The London Assembly was the first of these, established in 2000, following a referendum in 1998, but further plans were abandoned following rejection of a proposal for an elected assembly in North East England in a referendum in 2004. Unelected regional assemblies remain in place in eight regions of England.
.
Northern Ireland
.
Parliament Buildings in Stormont, Belfast, seat of the Northern Ireland Assembly.
The current government of Northern Ireland was established as a result of the 1998 Good Friday Agreement. This created the Northern Ireland Assembly. The Assembly is a unicameral body consisting of 108 members elected under the Single Transferable Vote form of proportional representation. The Assembly is based on the principle of power-sharing, in order to ensure that both communities in Northern Ireland, unionist and nationalist, participate in governing the region. It has power to legislate in a wide range of areas and to elect the Northern Ireland Executive (cabinet). It sits at Parliament Buildings at Stormont in Belfast.
The Assembly has authority to legislate in a field of competences known as "transferred matters". These matters are not explicitly enumerated in the Northern Ireland Act 1998 but instead include any competence not explicitly retained by the Parliament at Westminster. Powers reserved by Westminster are divided into "excepted matters", which it retains indefinitely, and "reserved matters", which may be transferred to the competence of the Northern Ireland Assembly at a future date. Health and education are "transferred" but criminal law and police are "reserved" and royal succession, defence and international relations are all "excepted".
While the Assembly was in suspension, due to scandals involving the main parties and the Provisional Irish Republican Army (IRA), its legislative powers were exercised by the UK government, which effectively had power to legislate by decree. Laws that would normally be within the competence of the Assembly were passed by the UK government in the form of Orders-in-Council rather than legislative acts.
There has been a significant decrease in violence over the last twenty years, though the situation remains tense, with the more hard-line parties such as Sinn Féin and the Democratic Unionists now holding the most parliamentary seats (see Demographics and politics of Northern Ireland).
.
Scotland
.
The current Scottish Parliament was established by the Scotland Act 1998 and its first meeting as a devolved legislature was on 12 May 1999. The parliament has the power to pass laws and has limited tax-varying capability. Another of its jobs is to hold the Scottish Government to account. The "devolved matters" over which it has responsibility include education, health, agriculture, and justice. A degree of domestic authority, and all foreign policy, remains with the UK Parliament in Westminster.
The public take part in Parliament in a way that is not the case at Westminster through Cross Party Groups on policy topics which the interested public join and attend meetings of alongside Members of the Scottish Parliament (MSPs).
The resurgence in Celtic language and identity, as well as 'regional' politics and development, has contributed to forces pulling against the unity of the state.[10] This was clearly demonstrated when- although some argue it was influenced by general public dillusionment with Labour- the Scottish National Party became the largest party in the Scottish Parliament by one seat. Alex Salmond (leader of SNP) has since made history by becoming the first First Minister of Scotland from a party other than Labour. The SNP rule as a minority government at Holyrood. Nevertheless, recent opinion polls have suggested that nationalism (i.e. a desire to break up the UK) is rising within Scotland and England. However, the polls have been known to be inaccurate in the past (for example, in the run up to the 1992 General Election). Moreover, polls carried out in the 1970s and the 1990s showed similar results, only to be debunked at elections. While support for breaking up the UK was strongest in Scotland, there was still a clear lead for unionism over nationalism.[11]
.
Wales
.
he National Assembly for Wales is a devolved assembly with power to make legislation in Wales, and is also responsible for Welsh Assembly Government departments in Wales. The Assembly was formed under the Government of Wales Act 1998, by the Labour government, after a referendum in 1997 (also supported by Plaid Cymru and the Liberal Democrats) approved its creation.
There is now a legal separation of the legislative and executive functions of the National Assembly, since the passing of the Government of Wales Act 2006. The Act created a separate executive called the "Welsh Assembly Government" which performs the day to day running of government affairs and contains members of the highest elected party of the Assembly chamber. The act also made the National Assembly for Wales a separate entity from the Welsh Assembly Government, and this entity scrutinizes the government in power. The "Assembly Commission" was also created to ensure the smooth running of resources and gathering of accurate facts for the Assembly to deal with.
As of the passing of the Government of Wales Act 2006, the National Assembly for Wales now has it's own legislative powers known as Assembly Measures. Each Assembly Measure derives it's power from a Legislative Competency Order which has to be passed by the Assembly and two Houses of Parliament. Before the 2006 Act, the Assembly did not have such legislative power and only had the right to develop Subordinate legislation off primary legislation made by the UK Parliament.
.
Elections and parties
.
Unlike many European nations, the United Kingdom uses a first-past-the-post system to elect members of Parliament. Therefore, elections and political parties in the United Kingdom are affected by Duverger's Law, which causes the agglomeration of related political ideologies into a few large parties with many small parties rarely winning representation.
Historically, the United Kingdom had two major political parties, though currently three parties dominate the political landscape. Originally, the Conservatives and the Liberals dominated British politics, but the Liberal Party collapsed in the early twentieth century and was largely replaced by the Labour Party. In the 1980s, the Liberals merged with the Social Democratic Party and, as the Liberal Democrats, are viewed as the third major party. Other parties, often called minor parties (in UK terms at least) contest elections but few except those which are based in single countries of the United Kingdom win seats in Parliament. The Scottish National Party has had MPs continuously since 1967, and Plaid Cymru, the Welsh nationalists, has had MPs continuously since 1974. All 18 MPs elected from Northern Ireland are from paries that just contest elections in Northern Ireland (or in the case of Sinn Fein, the island of Ireland.)
In the most recent general election in 2005, the Labour Party won re-election on a reduced majority, with both the Conservatives and Liberal Democrats making gains.
.
Electoral systems
.
Various electoral systems are used in the UK:
The First Past the Post system is used for general elections, and also for some local government elections in England and Wales.
The Bloc Vote system is also used for some local government elections in England and Wales.
Additional member systems have been in use, since devolution in 1999, for the Scottish Parliament, Welsh Assembly and London Assembly.
The Single Transferable Vote system is used in Northern Ireland to elect the Assembly, local councils, and Members of the European Parliament. It is also used to elect local councils in Scotland.
The party list is used for European Parliament elections in England, Scotland and Wales.
The Supplementary Vote is used to elect directly-elected mayors, such as the Mayor of London.
In the last few general elections, voter mandates for Westminster in the 40% ranges have been swung into 60% parliamentary majorities. No government has won a majority of the popular vote since the National Government of Stanley Baldwin in 1935. Twice since World War II (in 1951 and February 1974) the party with fewer popular votes actually came out with the larger number of seats. One reason for all the quirks is that Britain has many political parties, making it possible to win individual constituencies on less than 50% of the vote due to the opposition votes being divided.
Electoral reform has been considered for general elections many times, but after the Jenkins Commission report in October 1998, which suggested the Alternative vote top-up for general elections was effectively ignored by the government, there have been no further government proposals for reform. It is highly unlikely that electoral reform will happen unless there is a significant change in the balance of power and Labour loses its large majority.
Low turnout is a concern, as the percentage of the electorate who voted in the last general election was just 61%.
.
History of political parties
.
UK political parties originated in 1662 in the aftermath of the English Civil War, with the creation of the Court Party and the Country Party.
.
Conservatives (Tories)
.
The Country Party soon became known as the Tories (now the Conservative party, still commonly referred to as "the Tories") and the Whigs. The two remained the main political parties until the 20th century.
The term "Tory" originates from the Exclusion Bill crisis of 1678-1681 - the Whigs were those who supported the exclusion of the Roman Catholic Duke of York from the thrones of England, Ireland and Scotland, and the Tories were those who opposed it. Both names were originally insults: a "whiggamor" was a cattle driver, and a "tory" was an Irish term for an outlaw.
Generally, the Tories were associated with lesser gentry and the Church of England, while Whigs were more associated with trade, money, larger land holders (or "land magnates"), expansion and tolerance. Both were still committed to the political system in place at that time. Neither group could be considered a true political party in the modern sense.
The Rochdale Radicals were a group of more extreme reformists who were also heavily involved in the cooperative movement. They sought to bring about a more equal society, and are considered by modern standards to be left-wing.
.
Robert Peel
After becoming associated with repression of popular discontent in the years after 1815, the Tories underwent a fundamental transformation under the influence of Robert Peel, himself an industrialist rather than a landowner, who in his 1834 "Tamworth Manifesto" outlined a new "Conservative" philosophy of reforming ills while conserving the good.
Though Peel's supporters subsequently split from their colleagues over the issue of free trade in 1846, ultimately joining the Whigs and the Radicals to form what would become the Liberal Party, Peel's version of the party's underlying outlook was retained by the remaining Tories, who adopted his label of Conservative as the official name of their party.
The term 'Liberal Party' was first used officially in 1868, though it had been in use colloquially for decades beforehand. The Liberal Party formed a government in 1870 and then alternated with the Conservative Party as the party of government throughout the late 19th century and early 20th century.
The Irish Parliamentary Party was set up to replace the Home Rule League in 1882. It remained the third-largest party in British politics until 1918, often holding the balance of power.
.
Labour
.
In 1900, the Labour Representation Committee was established and it changed its name to The Labour Party in 1906. After the First World War, this led to the demise of the Liberal Party as the main reformist force in British politics. The existence of the Labour Party on the left of British politics led to a slow waning of energy from the Liberal Party, which has consequently assumed third place in national politics. After performing poorly in the elections of 1922, 1923 and 1924, the Liberal Party was superseded by the Labour Party as the party of the left.
.
History
.
Following two brief spells in minority governments in 1924 and 1929-1931, the Labour Party had its first true victory after World War II in the 1945 "khaki election". Throughout the rest of the twentieth century, Labour governments alternated with Conservative governments. The Conservatives were in power for most of the time, with the Labour Party suffering the "wilderness years" of 1951-1964 (three straight General Election defeats) and 1979-1997 (four straight General Election defeats).
During this second period, Margaret Thatcher, who became leader of the Conservative party in 1975, made a fundamental change to Conservative policies, turning the Conservative Party into an economic neoliberal party. In the General Election of 1979 she defeated James Callaghan's troubled Labour government after the winter of discontent.
For most of the 1980s and the 1990s, Conservative governments under Thatcher and her successor John Major pursued policies of privatization, anti-trade-unionism, and, for a time, Monetarism, now known collectively as Thatcherism.
The Labour Party elected left-winger Michael Foot as their leader after their 1979 election defeat, and he responded to dissatisfaction with the Labour Party by pursuing a number of radical policies developed by its grass-roots members. In 1981 several right-wing Labour MPs formed a breakaway group called the Social Democratic Party (SDP), a move which split Labour and is widely believed to have made Labour unelectable for a decade. The SDP formed an alliance with the Liberal Party which contested the 1983 and 1987 general elections as a centrist alternative to Labour and the Conservatives. After some initial success, the SDP did not prosper (partly due to its unfavourable distribution of votes in the FPTP electoral system), and was accused by some of splitting the anti-Conservative vote.
The SDP eventually merged with the Liberal Party to form the Liberal Democrats in 1988. Support for the new party has increased since then, and the Liberal Democrats (often referred to as LibDems) in 1997 and 2001 gained an increased number of seats in the House of Commons.
The Labour Party was badly defeated in the Conservative landslide of the 1983 general election, and Michael Foot was replaced shortly thereafter by Neil Kinnock as leader. Kinnock expelled the far left Militant tendency group and moderated many of the party's policies. Yet he was in turn replaced by John Smith after Labour defeats in the 1987 and 1992 general elections.
Tony Blair became leader of the Labour party after John Smith's sudden death from a heart attack in 1994. He continued to move the Labour Party back towards the 'centre' by loosening links with the unions and embracing many of Margaret Thatcher's liberal economic policies. This, coupled with the professionalising of the party machine's approach to the media, helped Labour win a historic landslide in the 1997 General Election, after 18 years of Conservative government. Some observers say the Labour Party had by then morphed from a democratic socialist party to a social democratic party, a process which delivered three general election victories but alienated some of its core base.[citation needed]
.
Main political parties
.
Whigs
Tories
Radical Party (UK)
Conservative Party (UK)
Liberal Party (UK)
Irish Parliamentary Party
Labour Party (UK)
Social Democratic Party (UK)
Liberal Democrats
.
Minor parties
.
Small parties
The Respect party, a left-wing group that came out of the anti-war movement has one MP, George Galloway, and a small number of seats on local councils across the country.
.
Non-Parliamentary political parties
Two parties have no seats in Parliament, but multiple seats in the European Parliament and a number of seats on local councils.
.
Green Party
.
United Kingdom Independence Party (UKIP)
The Greens also have two seats in the London Assembly; UKIP elected two members to the London Assembly, but they subsequently quit the party and now sit as One London members. Veritas has one Member of the European Parliament (MEP), its founder and former leader Robert Kilroy Silk, though he was elected for UKIP (which he later left). The Scottish National Party has formed a minority government in the Scottish Parliament, and Plaid Cymru have seats in the Welsh Assembly, as well as each having a number of council seats. A number of other parties have local councillors including the British National Party (BNP), the Liberal Party (in Liverpool, Peterborough and elsewhere), Mebyon Kernow (Cornish nationalist party) in Cornwall, and the Communist Left Alliance (in Fife).
.
Regional/National parties
.
Other political parties contest elections in constituent parts of the United Kingdom, seeking autonomy or independence, for example:
.
Mebyon Kernow (Sons of Cornwall)
Plaid Cymru - Party of Wales
Scottish Green Party
Scottish National Party (SNP, advocating independent Scottish statehood within the European Union)
Scottish Socialist Party (campaigning for a socialist Scottish republic)
English Democrats (campaigners for a separate English Parliament)
.
The SNP and Plaid Cymru work as a single parliamentary group in the UK and European parliaments.
Several local parties contest only within a specific area, a single county, borough or district. Examples include the Better Bedford Independent Party, one of the dominant parties in Bedford Borough Council, led by Bedford's current Mayor, Frank Branston. The most notable local party is Health Concern, which controls a single seat in the UK Parliament.
.
The far-left and far-right
.
Other minor UK political parties exist, but generally do not succeed in returning MPs to Parliament. There is a tendency on the far left and right for a proliferation of tiny groups (also known by the French term 'groupuscules'), sometimes characterized by extremely rigid ideologies or built around personalities. The largest of these groups probably is the Socialist Workers Party with a few thousand members.
.
Independents
.
There are also a few independent politicians with no party allegiance. This normally occurs only when an MP decides to break with his party in mid-session. Since 1950 only two MPs have been elected as genuine independents, though others have been elected after breaking away from their party:
,
Martin Bell represented the Tatton constituency in Cheshire between 1997 and 2001. He was elected following a "sleaze" scandal involving the sitting Conservative MP, Neil Hamilton -- Bell, a BBC journalist, stood as an anticorruption independent candidate, and the Labour and Liberal Democrat parties withdrew their candidates from the election.
Dr. Richard Taylor MP was elected for the Wyre Forest constituency in the 2001 on a platform opposing the closure of Kidderminster hospital. He later established Health Concern, the party under which he ran in 2005.
.
Local Government
,
The UK is divided into a variety of different types of Local Authorities, with different functions and responsibilities.
England has a mix of two-tier and single-tier councils in different parts of the country. In Greater London, a unique two-tier system exists, with power shared between the London borough councils, and the Greater London Authority which is headed by an elected mayor.
Unitary Authorities are used throughout Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland.
.
P.S. Note to all my Students and Visitors... I’m sure a British Citizen would make some changes, or add-ons or even delete entirely some paragraphs… but my intention is to give an idea of the British Government and not to turn this into a Politics or History Class… I am not including this time a list of difficult worlds... I'm sure you'll all understand.